Sodium-Ion Batteries - Design and Applications

Part A: Na-ion cells, BMS

1. Fundamental Concepts
2. The Na-ion Cell
3. Cell Arrangement
4. Na-ion BMS

Part B: Battery Design

5. Planning
6. Component Selection, Procurement
7. Mechanical and Thermal Design
8. Power Circuits Design
9. Control Circuits Design
10. Design Finalization

Part C: Battery Production

11. Battery Assembly, Deployment
12. Troubleshooting and Repair

Part D: Applications

13. Battery Arrays
14. Traction Batteries
15. House Power Batteries
16. Stationary BESSs
17. Grid-Scale BESSs

Back matter

• Appendix A through E
• Acronyms, initialisms
• Glossary and index

  Preface x
  Part A - Na-ion Cells, BMS 11
  Chapter 1 Fundamental concepts 1
  1.1 Chapter Introduction 1
  1.1.1 Tidbits 1
  1.1.2 Orientation 1
  1.2 Cells and Batteries 1
  1.2.1 Cell and Battery Terminology 1
  1.2.2 Cell and Battery Classification 3
  1.3 Cell and Battery Characteristics 5
  1.3.1 Equivalent Models 5
  1.3.2 Cell Voltage 6
  1.3.3 Charge and Coulombic Efficiency 10
  1.3.4 Capacity [Ah] 12
  1.3.5 Current and Specific Current 15
  1.3.6 Energy, Energy Density, Specific Energy 18
  1.3.7 Power, Power Density, Specific Power 20
  1.3.8 Resistance and Impedance [O] 22
  1.3.9 Capacitance [F] 23
  1.3.10 Cell Life 23
  1.4 Cell and Battery States 24
  1.4.1 State of Charge 24
  1.4.2 State of Health (SoH) 26
  1.4.3 Less common ÒStates ofÓ 27
  1.5 Specification Sheets 28
  1.5.1 Types of Spec Sheets 28
  1.5.2 How to Read a Spec Sheet 28
  1.6 Maximum Power Point and Time 30
  1.6.1 Maximum Power Point 30
  1.6.2 Maximum Power Time 31
  1.6.3 MPT Derivation 32
  1.6.4 MPT Conversions 33
  1.7 Charts 36
  1.7.1 Radar Chart 36
  1.7.2 Ragone Plot 36
  1.7.3 MPT-based Plots 38
  1.7.4 F.A.Q. 38
  Chapter 2 The Na-ion Cell 41
  2.1 Chapter Introduction 41
  2.1.1 Tidbits 41
  2.1.2 Orientation 41
  2.1.3 Na-ion Cell Definition 41
  2.1.4 Na-ion Cell History 41
  2.2 Na-ion Cell Types 42
  2.2.1 Cell Chemistry 42
  2.2.2 Cell Formats 43
  2.2.3 Power and Energy Cells 44
  2.3 Na-ion Cell Characteristics 44
  2.3.1 Voltage 44
  2.3.2 Resistance and Power 46
  2.3.3 Capacity 47
  2.3.4 Energy 48
  2.3.5 Losses 49
  2.3.6 Cell Expansion 49
  2.4 Na-ion Comparison with Other Cells 50
  2.4.1 Electrical Comparison 50
  2.4.2 Safety, Environmental, Price 52
  2.5 Using Na-ion Cells 53
  2.5.1 Use and Abuse 53
  2.5.2 Charging 55
  2.5.3 Thermal Runaway 59
  Chapter 3 Cell Arrangement 61
  3.1 Chapter Introduction 61
  3.1.1 Tidbits 61
  3.1.2 Orientation 61
  3.2 Arrangement Introduction 61
  3.2.1 Basic Arrangements and Notation 61
  3.2.2 Basic Arrangement Comparison 62
  3.3 Series Strings 63
  3.3.1 Voltage in Series Strings 63
  3.3.2 Current in Series Strings 65
  3.3.3 String Capacity and SoC 66
  3.3.4 String Imbalance 67
  3.3.5 Imbalance Causes 72
  3.3.6 Balancing 73
  3.3.7 Mismatched Cells in Series 76
  3.4 Parallel Blocks 77
  3.4.1 Parallel Block with Identical Cells 77
  3.4.2 Parallel Block with Dissimilar Cells 77
  3.4.3 Parallel Block Notes 79
  3.5 Parallel-First 80
  3.6 Series-First 81
  3.6.1 Series-first Notes 81
  3.6.2 Pros and Cons of Series-first 81
  3.7 Other Arrangements 84
  3.7.1 Complex Arrangements 84
  3.7.2 Dynamic Arrangements 84
  Chapter 4 Na-ion BMS 87
  4.1 Chapter Introduction 87
  4.1.1 Tidbits 87
  4.1.2 Orientation 87
  4.2 BMS Introduction 87
  4.2.1 BMS Definition 87
  4.2.2 BMS Technology 88
  4.2.3 BMS Topologies 89
  4.3 Measurement 91
  4.3.1 Cell Voltage Measurement 91
  4.3.2 Additional Voltage Measurements 93
  4.3.3 Battery Current Measurement 94
  4.3.4 Temperature Measurement 95
  4.4 Battery State Evaluation 95
  4.4.1 Limits Evaluation 95
  4.4.2 State of Charge evaluation 96
  4.4.3 Other Evaluations 99
  4.4.4 Warnings and Fault Evaluations 102
  4.4.5 Data Logging 104
  4.5 Battery Protection 105
  4.5.1 BMS State Machine 105
  4.5.2 Interior Protector Switch 105
  4.5.3 Thermal Management 107
  4.6 Balancing 108
  4.6.1 Balancing Technologies 108
  4.6.2 Charge-Transfer Topologies 109
  4.6.3 Balancing Algorithms 112
  4.6.4 Charging While Top-Balancing 113
  4.7 Inputs and Outputs 118
  4.7.1 Power Supply 118
  4.7.2 Signal Inputs and Outputs 119
  4.8 Communication Links 121
  4.8.2 CAN Bus 122
  4.8.3 Other Communication Links 123
  4.9 BMS Reliability 124
  4.9.1 BMS Hardware Longevity 124
  4.9.2 BMS Software Longevity 124
  Part B - Battery Design 127
  Chapter 5 Planning 129
  5.1 Chapter Introduction 129
  5.1.1 Tidbits 129
  5.1.2 Orientation 129
  5.2 Fundamental Decisions 129
  5.2.1 Do You Really Need To Design a Battery? 129
  5.2.2 Battery protection 129
  5.2.3 Modular Batteries 130
  5.3 Battery Design Checklist 135
  5.3.1 Initial Planning Steps 135
  5.3.2 Battery Design Steps 136
  Chapter 6 Component Selection, Procurement 137
  6.1 Chapter Introduction 137
  6.1.1 Tidbits 137
  6.1.2 Orientation 137
  6.2 Component Selection 137
  6.2.1 Cell Selection 137
  6.2.2 Off-the-shelf BMS Selection 139
  6.2.3 Sensor Selection 141
  6.2.4 Switching Components Selection 143
  6.2.5 Precharge Components Selection 146
  6.2.6 DC-DC Converters Selection 148
  6.2.7 Charger Selection 148
  6.2.8 Over-Current Protection Devices Selection 149
  6.2.9 Interconnects Selection 151
  6.2.10 Conductors Selection 154
  6.2.11 Ancillary Components 156
  6.3 Component Procurement 157
  6.3.1 Talking to Suppliers 157
  Chapter 7 Mechanical and Thermal Design 159
  7.1 Chapter Introduction 159
  7.1.1 Tidbits 159
  7.1.2 Orientation 159
  7.2 Enclosure Design 159
  7.2.1 Design for Safety 159
  7.2.2 Design for Serviceability 160
  7.2.3 Design for Performance 161
  7.2.4 Environmental Design 161
  7.3 Cell Placement 161
  7.3.1 Cylindrical Cells 161
  7.3.2 Prismatic Cells 164
  7.3.3 Pouch Cells 167
  7.4 High-Voltage Strings 167
  7.5 Thermal Management 169
  7.5.1 Heat and Temperature Sources 169
  7.5.2 Thermal Management Techniques 170
  7.5.3 Thermal Insulation 172
  7.5.4 Passive Heat Transfer 172
  7.5.5 Temporary Heat Storage 172
  7.5.6 Heating 174
  7.5.7 Forced Air Convection 174
  7.5.8 Forced Liquid Convection 177
  7.5.9 Heat Pumping 178
  7.6 Thermal Runaway Propagation Prevention 179
  7.6.1 Short Circuit Current Prevention 179
  7.6.2 Heat Transfer Minimization 180
  7.6.3 Ejecta Management 180
  Chapter 8 Power Circuits Design 181
  8.1 Chapter Introduction 181
  8.1.1 Tidbits 181
  8.1.2 Orientation 181
  8.2 Safety 182
  8.2.1 Galvanic Isolation 182
  8.2.2 Battery Disable 183
  8.2.3 High-Voltage Interlock Loop (HVIL) 183
  8.3 Overcurrent Protection 183
  8.3.1 Main Overcurrent Protection 183
  8.3.2 Secondary Overcurrent Protection 184
  8.4 Isolation and Ground Faults 185
  8.4.1 The Case for Battery Isolation 185
  8.4.2 Isolated Battery in a Grounded Application 186
  8.4.3 Achieving Battery Isolation 187
  8.4.4 Ground Faults 187
  8.4.5 Automatic Ground Fault Detection 188
  8.5 Cell Connections 189
  8.5.1 Parallel Blocks 189
  8.5.2 Cell Connections by Format 192
  8.6 Power Interconnects 193
  8.6.1 Power Conductors 194
  8.6.2 Battery Output 194
  8.7 Protector BMS Installation 194
  8.7.1 Protector BMS Topologies 194
  8.8 BMU Protector Switch Design 195
  8.8.1 Protection As a Last Resort 195
  8.8.2 BMU Protector Switch Topologies 196
  8.8.3 BMU Switch Technology 199
  8.8.4 Precharge 200
  8.9 Current Sensing Installation 204
  8.9.1 Current Sensors Placement 205
  8.10 BMS Power Supply 205
  8.10.1 Non-Isolated BMS Power Supply 205
  8.10.2 Isolated BMS Power Supply 206
  8.11 Charger Wiring 207
  8.11.1 Single Charger Connection 207
  8.11.2 Multiple Charger Connection 208
  8.11.3 Auxiliary Battery Charger 211
  8.12 DC-DC Converters 211
  8.12.1 Low-Power DC-DC Converters 211
  8.12.2 High-power DC-DC Converters 211
  Chapter 9 Control Circuits Design 213
  9.1 Chapter Introduction 213
  9.1.1 Tidbits 213
  9.1.2 Orientation 213
  9.2 Low-Voltage Power Supply Wiring 213
  9.3 Sensing Lines Wiring 213
  9.3.1 Cell Voltage Sensing 213
  9.3.2 String voltage sensing 216
  9.3.3 Temperature Sensing Wiring 216
  9.3.4 Current Sensing Wiring 217
  9.4 Control Lines Wiring 217
  9.4.1 Control Inputs 217
  9.4.2 Control Outputs 219
  9.4.3 Communication Links 220
  9.5 Electromagnetic Noise 222
  9.5.1 Noise Sources 222
  9.5.2 EMI Characteristics 223
  9.5.3 Radiation and Immunity Measures 224
  Chapter 10 Design Finalization 227
  10.1 Chapter Introduction 227
  10.1.1 Tidbits 227
  10.1.2 Orientation 227
  10.2 BMS Configuration 227
  10.2.1 Cell and Battery Characteristics Configuration 227
  10.2.2 Input and Output Configuration 228
  10.2.3 Limits Configuration 228
  10.2.4 Protector Switch Configuration 229
  10.2.5 Evaluation Configuration 229
  10.2.6 Management Configuration 230
  10.3 Battery Prototype 230
  10.4 Regulatory Testing 230
  10.4.1 Regulatory Testing Standards 230
  10.4.2 Testing Services 233
  10.5 Paperwork 233
  10.5.1 Internal Documents 234
  10.5.2 External Documents 234
  Part C - Battery Production 236
  Chapter 11 Battery Assembly and Deployment 237
  11.1 Chapter Introduction 237
  11.1.1 Tidbits 237
  11.1.2 Orientation 237
  11.2 Manufacturing Safety 237
  11.2.1 Assembly Area 237
  11.2.2 Emergency Plan 238
  11.2.3 Facilities 239
  11.3 Battery Pre-Production 239
  11.3.1 Incoming Quality Control (IQC) 239
  11.3.2 Assembly Pre-Production 239
  11.4 Battery Assembly 240
  11.4.1 Assembly Tips 240
  11.4.2 Battery Assembly Procedure Examples 241
  11.5 Battery Finalization 243
  11.5.1 Isolation Test 243
  11.5.2 BMS Communications and Configuration 243
  11.5.3 Balancing 244
  11.5.4 Functional Testing 245
  11.6 Battery Transportation 245
  11.6.1 Transportation Certifications 245
  11.6.2 Self-Transportation 246
  11.6.3 Delivery 246
  11.7 Battery Deployment 246
  11.7.1 Battery Installation at Final Location 246
  11.7.2 Battery Assembly at Final Location 246
  11.8 Battery Usage 247
  11.8.1 Fumes 248
  11.8.2 Fire Safety 248
  Chapter 12 Troubleshooting and Repair 251
  12.1 Chapter Introduction 251
  12.1.1 Tidbits 251
  12.1.2 Orientation 251
  12.2 Troubleshooting Guide 251
  12.2.1 Troubleshooting vs. Repair 251
  12.2.2 Resources 252
  12.3 Cell and Battery Damage 253
  12.3.1 Cell Damage 253
  12.3.2 Battery Damage 253
  12.3.3 Missing Slave 254
  12.4 BMS Damage 255
  12.4.1 Cell Sense Damage During Installation 255
  12.4.2 Cell Sense Damage During Use 256
  12.4.3 Other BMS Damage 257
  12.4.4 Damaged Power Components 258
  12.5 Power-Up Issues 259
  12.5.1 Power Supply Damage 259
  12.5.2 No BMS Power 259
  12.5.3 BMS Power Cycles Constantly 259
  12.6 Cell Voltage Measurement Issues 260
  12.6.1 Reported Voltages Are Incorrect 260
  12.6.2 Mismatched Cell Voltages 261
  12.7 Other Measurements Issues 264
  12.7.1 Battery voltage troubleshooting 264
  12.7.2 Temperature Troubleshooting 264
  12.7.3 Current Troubleshooting 264
  12.7.4 Ground Fault Troubleshooting 265
  12.8 Data Evaluation Issues 267
  12.8.1 State of Charge Troubleshooting 267
  12.8.2 Effective Capacity Troubleshooting 267
  12.8.3 Actual Resistance Troubleshooting 267
  12.8.4 State of Health Troubleshooting 267
  12.8.5 Current Limits Troubleshooting 268
  12.9 Communications Issues 268
  12.9.1 CAN Bus Troubleshooting 268
  12.9.2 USB Troubleshooting 270
  12.9.3 RS-485 Troubleshooting 270
  12.10 Inputs and Outputs Issues 271
  12.10.1 Inputs Troubleshooting 271
  12.10.2 Outputs Troubleshooting 272
  12.11 Protector Switch Issues 273
  12.11.1 Contactors Troubleshooting 273
  12.11.2 Precharge Troubleshooting 274
  12.11.3 Fuse Troubleshooting 274
  12.12 Warning and Fault Messages 275
  12.13 Repair 276
  12.13.1 Cells Repair 276
  12.13.2 BMS Repair 277
  12.13.3 Manual Balance 277
  Part D Ð Applications 278
  Chapter 13 Battery Arrays 279
  13.1 Chapter Introduction 279
  13.1.1 Tidbits 279
  13.1.2 Orientation 279
  13.2 Battery Array Introduction 279
  13.2.1 Battery Array Definition 279
  13.2.2 Battery Array Characteristics 280
  13.3 Independent Battery Arrays 281
  13.3.1 Inrush Prevention in Parallel Array 281
  13.3.2 Issues with Independent Batteries 283
  13.4 Ganged Battery Arrays 285
  13.4.1 Parallel Ganged Batteries 286
  13.4.2 Split Batteries 286
  13.4.3 Series Ganged Batteries 288
  Chapter 14 Traction Batteries 289
  14.1 Chapter Introduction 289
  14.1.1 Tidbits 289
  14.1.2 Orientation 289
  14.2 Technical Considerations 289
  14.2.1 Types of EVs 289
  14.2.2 Traction Battery Design 291
  14.2.3 Low-voltage systems 293
  14.2.4 Mechanical Design 294
  14.3 Light and Small EVs 295
  14.3.1 Robots 296
  14.3.2 Light EVs 296
  14.3.3 Small EVs 297
  14.4 Passenger EVs 301
  14.4.1 Technical Considerations 302
  14.4.2 Traction Battery Circuits 302
  14.4.3 Starter Lighting Ignition (SLI) Network 304
  14.4.4 Communication links 305
  14.4.5 Charging Stations (EVSE) 305
  14.5 Heavy-duty EVs 308
  14.5.1 Public transportation 308
  14.5.2 Industrial EVs 309
  14.6 Off-Land Traction 309
  14.6.1 Marine Traction 309
  14.6.2 Submarine Traction 310
  Chapter 15 House Power Batteries 311
  15.1 Chapter Introduction 311
  15.1.1 Tidbits 311
  15.1.2 Orientation 311
  15.2 Marine House Power Batteries 311
  15.2.1 General Considerations 311
  15.2.2 Technical Considerations 312
  15.2.3 Power Sources and Loads 314
  15.2.4 Battery Charging 315
  15.2.5 House Battery Technology 316
  15.2.6 Multiple House Batteries and Buses 316
  15.3 Recreational Vehicle (RV) Batteries 319
  15.3.1 RV Technical Considerations 319
  15.3.2 RV Na-ion batteries 321
  15.4 Electrical Auxiliary Power Units 322
  15.4.1 Long-haul trucks 322
  15.4.2 Utility trucks 323
  15.4.3 Aviation 324
  Chapter 16 Stationary BESSs 327
  16.1 Chapter Introduction 327
  16.1.1 Tidbits 327
  16.1.2 Orientation 327
  16.2 BESS Introduction 327
  16.2.1 BESS Definitions 327
  16.2.2 Technical Considerations 329
  16.3 BESS Shutdown 331
  16.3.1 Consequences of BESS Shutdown 331
  16.3.2 Avoid BESS Battery Shutdown 331
  16.3.3 Shutdown Disruption Mitigation 332
  16.3.4 Recovery From Discharge Disable 333
  16.4 Telecom Applications 335
  16.4.1 Telecom Technical Considerations 335
  16.4.2 Telecom Application Examples 338
  16.5 Residential Applications 339
  16.5.1 Technical considerations 339
  16.5.2 Residential Application Examples 341
  16.6 UPS Applications 344
  16.6.1 UPS Technical Considerations 344
  16.6.2 UPS Topologies 345
  16.7 Other Stationary BESS Applications 352
  16.7.1 Microgrid 352
  16.7.2 Pole- and Pad-Mount Batteries 354
  Chapter 17 Grid-Scale BESSs 355
  17.1 Chapter Introduction 355
  17.1.1 Tidbits 355
  17.1.2 Orientation 356
  17.2 Technical and Financial Considerations 356
  17.2.1 Supply and Demand 356
  17.2.2 Power Quality 356
  17.2.3 Financial 358
  17.3 Grid-Scale Battery Players 359
  17.3.1 Public Utility Companies 360
  17.3.2 Large-Scale Energy Users 363
  17.3.3 Private Utility Companies 368
  17.4 Grid-Scale Battery Technology 369
  17.4.1 Electrical Design 369
  17.4.2 Mechanical Design 371
  Appendices 372
  A Appendix A 373
  A.1 Fundamental Concepts 373
  A.1.1 Electrical Concepts 373
  A.1.2 Common Misunderstandings 376
  A.2 Na-ion Cells 378
  A.2.1 List of Cells 378
  A.2.2 Na-ion Cell Operation at the Particle Level 379
  A.2.3 Cell Testing 383
  A.3 Cell Arrangement 389
  A.3.1 Parallel Blocks 389
  A.4 BMS Design 393
  A.4.1 Should You Design a BMS? 393
  A.4.2 Charge Transfer Balancing Electronics 394
  A.4.3 Isolation Loss Detection 395
  A.4.3.5 BMS Certifications 397
  B Appendix B 399
  B.1 Power Converters 399
  B.1.1 AC and DC Converters 400
  B.1.2 DC to DC Converters 401
  B.1.3 AC to AC Converters 403
  B.1.4 Any Direction Converters 403
  B.1.5 Technical Notes on Chargers 404
  B.1.6 Technical Notes on Inverters, Invergers 405
  B.1.7 Technical Notes on Motor Drivers 407
  B.2 Mechanical Design 412
  B.2.1 Voltage Breakdown 412
  B.3 Battery Design 415
  B.3.1 ÒI DonÕt Need No Stinking BMSÓ 415
  B.3.2 Single-Port Battery with Start/Stop Switches 415
  B.3.3 Parallel charging, series discharging 417
  C Appendix C 419
  C.1 Production and Deployment 419
  C.1.1 Test Fixtures 419
  C.1.2 Gross Balancer 420
  C.1.3 Second Use of Batteries 420
  D Appendix D 421
  D.1 Battery Arrays 421
  D.1.1 Single-port Parallel Ganged Batteries 421
  17.4.3 Dual-port Parallel Ganged Batteries 423
  D.2 Electric Vehicles 424
  D.2.1 Devices Used With Traction Batteries 424
  D.2.2 Starting Lighting Ignition Batteries (SLI) 425
  D.2.3 Electric Motors 426
  D.2.4 EVSE Communication Standards 429
  D.2.5 V2G, V2H 431
  D.2.6 Vehicles Powered by Onboard Renewables 432
  D.3 House Power Batteries 432
  D.3.1 Yacht Wiring Example Circuits 432
  D.3.2 Marine Shore Power 435
  D.3.3 RV Shore Power 438
  D.4 Stationary BESSs 439
  D.4.1 Recovery From Discharge Disable 439
  D.5 Grid-scale BESSs 441
  D.5.1 Inverger Internal Topology 441
  E Appendix E - Resources 443
  E.1 Services 443
  E.2 Publications 443
  E.2.1 Books 443
  E.2.2 Magazines 446
  E.2.3 Online Publication 446
  E.3 Market Reports 446
  E.3.1 Events 446
  E.4 Associations and Consortia 447
  E.5 Regulatory Standards 447
  E.6 International Dictionary 448
  Acronyms and Initialisms 453
  Glossary and Alphabetical Index 455
  References 459